The past has a special significance in Russian politics, and the Great Patriotic War occupies a central place in Russia’s historical memory. The Kremlin and its propagandists use the events of 1941-1945 for various purposes, including in creating a narrative about Russia’s history. The events that took place during this period are presented as proof of the heroism and historical mission of this nation. At the same time, the creators of the narrative do their best to hide less glorious events, such as the division of Eastern Europe into zones of influence on the basis of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, or the shooting of Polish officers and representatives of the elite in Katyn. The Great Patriotic War is also used as an argument to justify the aggression against Ukraine.

In the country ruled by Putin, any undermining of the official state version of the history of the Great Patriotic War is punished and presented as a threat to Russia’s national security and the continuity of the state’s existence. Despite legal protection and even the officially acknowledged version of the history of the Great Patriotic War, Russian politicians warn of hostile forces trying to annihilate Russia by erasing its history.

In the fourth part of the series on the mythologisation of the Great Patriotic War, we take a look at how it is used to justify the invasion of Ukraine, in what messages it is used, and what methods are used for spreading it. We are also trying to answer the question of where the effectiveness of Russian propaganda comes from.

The Great Patriotic War in the statements of Russian officials

The Great Patriotic War is a topic frequently raised by the Russian authorities. We can regularly hear about it in Vladimir Putin’s statements on the occasion of Victory Day. Other politicians such as Dmitry Medvedev, Sergey Lavrov and Dmitry Peskov also speak (or write) about it. Patriarch Kirill, the leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, is also very active in creating the narrative of the Great Patriotic War.

Putin’s speech on 24 February, 2022

The Great Patriotic War and references to it appear in the speech of the Russian president, in which he de facto announced the invasion of Ukraine. Putin equates the Great Patriotic War, the victory over Nazism and the beginning of the “denazification” of Ukraine. It is a typical means of propaganda that affects the imagination of Russian citizens and arouses specific resentments. This procedure consists of placing current events in a historical framework and comparing them with each other.

NATO as the Third Reich

According to Putin, Russia, like the Soviet Union before the attack of the Third Reich, tried not to provoke the possible aggressor. It was the aggressor, i.e. the collective West under the leadership of the United States, that attacked other countries, just like Hitler’s Germany in the years 1939-1941. Putin mentions a number of interventions by the coalition of Western countries: the bombing of Belgrade, Iraq, Libya, Syria. At the same time, NATO violated the alleged agreements with Russia by expanding to the east. Putin says in his speech:

We know that in 1940 and early 1941 the Soviet Union went to great lengths to prevent war or at least delay its outbreak. To this end, the USSR sought not to provoke the potential aggressor until the very end by refraining or postponing the most urgent and obvious preparations it had to make to defend itself from an imminent attack. When it finally acted, it was too late.

He goes on to highlight the disastrous consequences of this policy:

The country was not prepared to counter the invasion by Nazi Germany, which attacked our Motherland on June 22, 1941, without declaring war. The country stopped the enemy and went on to defeat it, but this came at a tremendous cost. The attempt to appease the aggressor ahead of the Great Patriotic War proved to be a mistake which came at a high cost for our people. In the first months after the hostilities broke out, we lost vast territories of strategic importance, as well as millions of lives. We will not make this mistake the second time. We have no right to do so.

According to Vladimir Putin, modern Russia, as the heir to the tradition of victory over Nazism, has no right to make the same mistake. That is why, in defence of its interests, it is launching an invasion of Ukraine, which, according to the Russian propaganda narrative, was taken over by the Banderites after the Revolution of Dignity. The narrative of the peaceful policy of the Soviet Union dates back to Stalin’s times and was disseminated, among others, by Pravda (see Sean McMeekin, Stalin’s War. A New History of World War II). In fact, the Soviet Union at that time was involved in the war in the Far East and just lost the war with Finland.

Ukraine’s leaders are Nazis

By equating the current Ukrainian authorities with the Nazis, Putin emphasises the alleged threat they pose to Russia and the Russian-speaking population. Representatives of the Ukrainian establishment, as well as citizens supporting Euromaidan, are described as Nazis steeped in Russophobia. Their goal, according to the Russian narrative, is clear — they want to destroy Russia and the Russians — and they will achieve it, even if it means applying the methods used by the Nazis. Putin says:

They will undoubtedly try to bring war to Crimea just as they have done in Donbass, to kill innocent people just as members of the punitive units of Ukrainian nationalists and Hitler’s accomplices did during the Great Patriotic War. They have also openly laid claim to several other Russian regions.

Later in his speech, he emphasises that:

It is not our plan to occupy the Ukrainian territory. We do not intend to impose anything on anyone by force. At the same time, we have been hearing an increasing number of statements coming from the West that there is no need any more to abide by the documents setting forth the outcomes of World War II, as signed by the totalitarian Soviet regime. How can we respond to that?

There is only one answer – defending the sacred memory of the sacrifices suffered by the Soviet Union during World War II. Putin expresses it in these words:

The outcomes of World War II and the sacrifices our people had to make to defeat Nazism are sacred. This does not contradict the high values of human rights and freedoms in the reality that emerged over the post-war decades. This does not mean that nations cannot enjoy the right to self-determination, which is enshrined in Article 1 of the UN Charter.

The right to self-determination

Putin goes on to draw attention to the rights of nations to self-determination. He also applies them to the so-called Luhansk People’s Republic and the Donetsk People’s Republic. He emphasises that after the end of World War II, no one asked the people living in these lands about their opinion on the issue of nationality.

At the end of his speech, he addresses the Ukrainian officers:

Comrade officers, your fathers, grandfathers and great-grandfathers did not fight the Nazi occupiers and did not defend our common Motherland to allow today’s neo-Nazis to seize power in Ukraine. You swore the oath of allegiance to the Ukrainian people and not to the junta, the people’s adversary which is plundering Ukraine and humiliating the Ukrainian people.

By referring to the achievements and sacrifices of their ancestors, he tries to convince the soldiers to lay down their weapons. He then emphasises that the Ukrainian authorities are not legitimate. Once again, he compares the democratically elected government to the Nazis and enemies of the people. One can notice a very clear reference to the sacrifice of soldiers during the Great Patriotic War, among whom were the ancestors of Ukrainians. Putin contrasts them with the service of modern Ukrainian soldiers for the sake of the supposedly fascist junta, not the people of Ukraine.

Examples of Putin’s other statements

Vladimir Putin’s speech is an inseparable element of the celebration of Victory Day in Russia. It is impossible not to find references to the events of 1941-1945 in those. So, let’s take a look at Putin’s statement from 9 May, 2023. A full analysis of the main celebrations in 2023 can be read on the website of the Institute of Central Europe; the Polish Institute of International Affairs wrote about the celebrations in 2022.

The speech of 9 May 2023 

The Great Patriotic War serves to emphasise the unity of the multinational Soviet Union. The President of the Russian Federation says:

During the Great Patriotic War, our heroic ancestors proved that there is nothing stronger, more powerful, and more reliable than our unity. There is nothing stronger in the world than our love for our homeland.

Later in his speech, he continues:

The battles deciding about the fate of our Homeland have always become national and sacred. We are faithful to the testaments of our ancestors, we deeply and clearly understand what it means to be worthy of the significance of their war, labour and moral achievements. We are proud of the participants of the special military operation, of all those who fight on the front line, who secure the front under fire, save the wounded. Nothing is more important now than your combat work. The security of the country depends on you today, the future of our statehood and our nation depends on you. You are doing your military duty with honour; you are fighting for Russia. Behind you are your families, children, friends. They are waiting for you. I’m sure you can feel their boundless love.

Putin emphasises the sacrifice and work of the citizens of the Soviet Union during the war with the Third Reich, and gives them the status of sacred. At the same time, he compares the war with Ukraine to those events. He points out to citizens that they must morally match their ancestors who defeated Nazism.

Interview with Tucker Carlson

In the interview with Tucker Carlson, Putin claims that Zelenskyy’s father fought in World War II. This is obviously not true, because the father of the president of Ukraine was born in 1947. However, the mere mention of this indicates an important element in creating an anti-Ukrainian narrative and creating a specific image of Ukraine’s democratic authorities.

During the interview we have already analysed, Putin states that he asked Zelenskyy why he supports Ukrainian neo-Nazis. This is a constant element of creating a narrative about the Ukrainian authorities, as explained above.

At the same time, it is worth noting that the grandfather of the Ukrainian president fought in the ranks of the Red Army, which was used by Mariya Zakharova, who is the director of the Department of Information and Press in the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Dmitry Medvedev

Former President of the Russian Federation, currently Deputy Chairman of the Security Council of the Russian Federation, Dmitry Medvedev is known for his controversial opinions. Experts and commentators point out that he says and writes what Vladimir Putin cannot say.

Since the beginning of the full-scale war in Ukraine, he has become known as the author of harsh and exaggerated posts on social media. In addition, he publishes articles in a similar tone. The topic that he touches on, among other things, is the Great Patriotic War.

On 9 May, 2024, Medvedev published an article in his typical style. The former president emphasises that Russia in the current millennium has to fight against the new reincarnation of fascism. The regime that had been defeated by Soviet soldiers was brought back to life, and it is personified by the alleged Nazi regime in Kyiv. In his article, he claims that Russia’s enemies want to turn the world upside down and let it burn in the heat of a world war. According to the politician, the greatest paradox of the present times is that a return to criminal ideologies has become a practice.

In the publication, he also accuses the Anglo-Saxons of creating the conditions in which fascism could be born. He then states that they supported and “fed” this criminal system, and their plan was to use it to achieve their goals. Medvedev also accuses the “collective West” of doing the same with the alleged Nazi regime in Kyiv.

Medvedev’s statement is part of the policy of distorting history and accusing Western countries of supporting Nazism and blaming them for the outbreak of World War II.

Interview with Sergey Lavrov published on the website of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

On 1 June, 2024, an interview with Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov was published on the website of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

From the very beginning, the minister highlights Russia’s military traditions and the great victories of its armed forces. It is worth noting here that Russia did not win the Crimean War, as Lavrov would have liked. He also states that we are witnessing attempts to reinterpret history and equate the victors with the Nazis.

Lavrov believes that in the West there is a view that the people do not need or desire to be reminded of the horrors of Nazism. Allegedly, these events are to be distant and unimportant for the westerners. He states that this is an attempt to revive Nazism presented as goodness of heart. As an example of such an approach, he cites talks with Germany on compensation for the victims of the siege of Leningrad. The German state made one-time payments to the Jewish survivors of the siege of Leningrad. The Russian side considered this unfair and pointed out that all the inhabitants of Leningrad at that time suffered equally. Lavrov indicates that during many conversations, including the one he recalls, the Germans have long suggested that Nazism and the victims of World War II are a matter of the past.

Lavrov on Ukraine and the West

He then recalls the words of Reichkommissar Erich Koch, who stated in his memoirs that Ukraine is only an object of exploitation, and its population must be used for war purposes. This is an obvious reference to the current situation in Ukraine related to the shortage of people in the army. By using this quote, he equates the West and the Ukrainian authorities with the Nazis, insinuating that both forcibly enlisted people in the army and sent them to the front, as well as robbed the country of riches and natural resources.

Lavrov’s statement is intended to accentuate the victory of the Soviet Union in World War II, thus perpetuating the myth of the victorious Russian army. At the same time, it is used to discredit Western countries. Lavrov presents them as insensitive to harm, not paying attention to history. He also accuses them of arrogance because they do not want to pay compensation to victims of World War II of non-Jewish origin.

Mariya Zakharova’s statements in TV programs

Now let’s have a look at examples of more aggressive statements that also come from the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Their author is Mariya Zakharova, known for her controversial and harsh words, who works as the director of the Department of Information and Press of the aforementioned Russian ministry. For the purposes of this article, we will analyse two statements by Zakharova. The first took place in a popular Russian TV program hosted by Vladimir Solovyov. In it, she criticises the American aid provided under the Lend-Lease agreement. In his second statement, she undermines the legitimacy of the alliance between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies.

Interview with Vladimir Solovyov

In an interview with Solovyov, Zakharova first criticises the Marshall Plan, i.e. the long-term assistance of the United States to European countries devastated by war, including Germany. She attributes evil intentions to its creators, claiming that its goal was to destroy the entire European system created after the war. She also states that it was aimed at the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries. It should be emphasised that it was Joseph Stalin who refused to accept aid under the Marshall Plan and imposed his decision on the satellite states. Mariya Zakharova then links the Marshall Plan to the failed denazification of Germany. In her opinion, this was a deliberate action, and the Nazi ideology survived the Nuremberg trial and continues to this day. In her opinion, this is where contemporary problems come from. This is an obvious reference to the alleged Nazism prevailing in Ukraine.

She then argues, in quite emotional words, that it is worth comparing the Marshall Plan to American aid to Ukraine. At this point, Solovyov says that it would be interesting to compare the amount of aid given to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease with the aid given to Germany after the end of World War II. Solovyov thus suggests that post-war Germany received more support than the USSR during the armed struggle. To answer the question of the host of the program, it should be noted that the aid to West Germany under the Marshall Plan amounted to $1.5 billion dollars. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, received $11 billion worth of support under the Lend-Lease agreement. Then Zakharova talks about American aid to Ukraine and states that the U.S. authorities officially boast about killing Russians. In her opinion, this is to be inscribed in the official policy of the American shadow cabinet.

Interview in the program broadcast on the TVC channel

Another of the statements analysed here took place in a TV program hosted by Russian propagandist Dmitry Kulikov. Zakharova indicates at the beginning of her speech that we are witnessing the disintegration of international relations. Then she notes the incompetence of Western politicians and their amoral lifestyle.

One of the participants of the conversation points out that the Russians had allies in the West in the past. He says that during the Napoleonic Wars it was Great Britain, whereas during World War II, the Soviet Union was part of the anti-Hitler coalition, which included France, Great Britain and the USA.

Zakharova strongly objects this claim. She shouts that Stalin had to ask for help from the Western Allies before they decided to support the Soviet Union. The desire for military cooperation in defeating Nazi Germany was only to emerge among the Allied leaders in 1943-1944. It was the moment when the Red Army won decisive victories on the Eastern Front, for which it had to pay a huge tribute of blood. Zakharova also urges the listeners and interlocutors not to believe the Western version of history, because the West opportunistically formed an alliance, predicting that the Soviet Union would win the war.

Zakharova and rewriting the history

These are obvious lies, because aid from the USA under the Lend-Lease agreement had reached the USSR even before the Americans entered the war. Shortly after the start of Operation Barbarossa, Great Britain and the Soviet Union signed a treaty on the joint fight against Nazi Germany. The next step deepening the USSR’s participation in the anti-Hitler coalition and cooperation with the Western Allies was the signing of the United Nations Declaration, which stipulated the joint struggle of the Allies (including the Soviet Union) against Nazi Germany. The Allies also fought the Axis powers in Africa.

Later in her statement, Zakharova maintains that Russia has had only two allies for centuries — the army and the navy. Therefore, it cannot count on external help, and accepting it in the past was a mistake of the elites. She underscores the alleged fact that allies have betrayed Russia many times in the past. All these pseudo-historical arguments lead Zakharova to the conclusion that the current struggle is not about the future of Ukraine, but about the future of humanity. The primary issue in this clash is the fight of ideology – the perverse dictatorship of the West – against Russian traditionalism and family values.

Summarising Zakharova’s statements

The first of the quoted statements by the spokeswoman of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs depreciates the military aid that the Americans provided to the Soviet Union during World War II. By doing so, Russian propaganda is trying to create an image of the Soviet Union, which won the war against the Third Reich on its own. At the same time, she claims that the hidden goal of the agreement, as well as the Marshall Plan, was to destabilise the world order immediately after the end of World War II and allegedly bring the Soviet Union to destruction.

The first statement resonates with the second one, in which Zakharova affirms that Russia has never had allies. In her vision of the history of World War II, the West is presented as an opportunistic and amoral ally that is able to change the front at any time just to win. In this statement, it is no longer Nazism that is the main problem, but the alleged liberal and perverse dictatorship of the West, which wants to destroy Russia and traditional, conservative values.

Patriarch Kirill and Orthodox clergymen

The head of the Russian church has gone through a long ideological road. This is perfectly illustrated by his consecration of the Main Cathedral of the Russian Armed Forces in 2020. The décor of the church commemorates the military history of Russia, and next to Vladimir the Great we can also find a red star and Stalin there.

In 1992, Kirill preached a sermon for officers on the Kremlin. He asserted that soldiers killed during the Great Patriotic War are martyrs. In addition, he said that Russia had not been created in the last 70 years, and its history has been going on for 1000 years, and on top of that, it has nothing to do with Stalin’s state.

Over the years, Kirill has been building his own theology of victory, which was to point to a deeper sense of the millions of sacrifices that the Soviet Union suffered during the war. The head of the Russian Orthodox Church equates the crucifixion of Christ with the death of millions of soldiers. Their blood was to wash away the sin of national apostasy, which took place after the communists took power. The Great Patriotic War is therefore interpreted by the patriarch as a national crucifixion.

Other clergymen also began to follow in Kirill’s footsteps. And so, a few days after the invasion of Ukraine began, Igor Pahmenov told his flock that in the lands of Holy Rus there was a fight against collective Hitler and the enemies of Eastern Orthodoxy.

The above examples strike messianic and biblical tones. In this vision, soldiers are waging a new “sacred war” and in order to match the deeds of their ancestors, they must conquer the new Berlin, which is Kyiv.

The media’s use of the myth of World War II to justify the invasion

The media — both the press and television — play an extremely important role in spreading Putin’s propaganda. 85% of Russians get their information from state information networks. As a result, the majority of society receives a message in line with the Kremlin’s version of events, unable to count on alternative sources, as these are becoming more and more limited every year. So, it is not surprising that such a key topic as the war in Ukraine has become extremely popular in the media. On the other hand, the myth of the Great Patriotic War as the central point of the Kremlin’s historical policy was an excellent tool for propaganda use.

For the purposes of this report, Russian media can be divided into three primary groups: media owned by the state, under the control of oligarchs, and controlled by the secret services. Apart from that, there are also international media linked to the Kremlin or amplifying its message abroad. We focus on this division below and show how individual groups used World War II to justify invasion internally and externally.

Russian news portals have been thoroughly mapped by the Microsoft Threat Analysys Center. The report shows very well how individual media are related to each other. It should also be noted that after the Russian aggression against Ukraine, access to many of the portals listed here was blocked in the European Union and the U.S. However, this does not mean that they no longer have an impact on building social moods.

State television

State television is the most important part of the television market in Russia. The vast majority of citizens of this country watch programs broadcast there. Therefore, the views and theses presented there reach millions of people. They are becoming the dominant discourse in Russia’s information space, which is eagerly used by the propaganda apparatus. Since the outbreak of the war in Ukraine, anti-Ukrainian and anti-Western content has become more aggressive.

Journalists who serve Moscow as propaganda mouthpieces often make much stronger statements under the guise of independence than those made by Kremlin officials. For instance, Dmitry Kiselyov in a program on the First Channel, talking about the celebrations of the 80th anniversary of the Battle of Stalingrad, made extremely controversial statements. He said, among other things, that the whole of Europe was on Hitler’s side and the Soviet Union had to defeat it. It is a popular myth, built back in the times of the USSR, which was supposed to show how great a sacrifice the Red Army and the society of the Soviet Union had to make to defeat the enemy. In fact, the conquered territories often created more problems than benefits for the Third Reich, redirecting much of the economic effort to their maintenance.

Of course, the whole narrative about the fight against the “collective West” is linked to the war in Ukraine. Kiselyov points out that the West continues to support the Nazis by sending them heavy weapons, which is a clear allusion to Ukraine. He also warns that Russia may soon stop refraining itself and use its full force. During the program, the story of a Russian female soldier fighting in Ukraine was also presented. The story was told in between conversations about World War II, which builds an obvious parallel between the current war and the defence of Stalingrad. Finally, Kiselyov accuses the countries of Europe of pushing the Third Reich into war. During this part of the program, Józef Piłsudski and the Polish flag can be seen in the background. It is a continuation of the narrative blaming Poland for the outbreak of World War II, which we discussed in more detail in the second part.

Vladimir Solovyov

In one of the programs on Rossiya 1 TV, invited guests often make substantively dubious statements. Vladimir Solovyov, known for his controversial statements and constant threats with nuclear weapons, is a regular there. During one of the shows, he referred to World War II, claiming that those who owe its independence to Russia speak the loudest about opposing it and arming Ukraine. This is to emphasise the alleged ingratitude of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, which cannot appreciate their liberation by the Red Army.

Karen Shakhnazarov

This thread was continued by the well-known Russian director Karen Shakhnazarov. During the discussion, he claimed that both World War II and the Cold War were actually lost by the West. Misunderstanding this fact is supposed to explain why European countries still believe that they can defeat Russia in Ukraine. During the same program, the Russian political scientist Dmitry Evstafyev clearly indicated that not only Ukraine, but also the whole of Europe should be denazified. He added that their grandparents in 1943 also thought it was impossible, but they succeeded. This is an obvious example of the messianic vision of Russia, which we also discussed in more detail in the second part of this analysis.

Margarita Simonyan

Margarita Simonyan, editor-in-chief of the Kremlin’s English-language television RT, pushed this vision even further. She claimed on the Rossiya 1 channel that Russia is currently fighting with the entire NATO. As a result, it opposes the 50 most powerful countries in the world, with whom it will eventually win. This is to be the largest effort in the history of this country and as such, it will overshadow even the Great Patriotic War. The whole statement is also full of biblical references, in which Russia is presented as fighting against absolute evil, opposing Satan himself.

The symbolism of the Great Patriotic War was also associated with the war in Ukraine, for example during the presentation of preparations for the Victory Day parade in 2022 on state television. Planes flying over the Red Square were to line up in the letter Z, which is commonly associated with Russian aggression against Ukraine. Combining these two events – the celebrations of the victory over Nazism and the current war – is aimed at building a parallel between these two events in the eyes of Russians.

The press in the hands of the Kremlin and oligarchs

In Russia, a large part of the press belongs to the state. Numerous newspapers and magazines are also owned by oligarchs who share common interests with the decision-makers in the Kremlin. As a result, the media in their hands repeat narratives that are fully consistent with Moscow’s propaganda message. This, of course, also applies to the war in Ukraine and its justification through references to World War II.

RIA Nowosti

A perfect example of this is an article published on the website of the RIA Novosti portal, which belongs to the state media group Rossiya Segodnya. Its seemingly innocent character perfectly shows how World War II is used for propaganda even in very small events. The text tells the story of two veterans of the Great Patriotic War who wish soldiers from the Central Military District Merry Christmas in December 2023. The soldiers serve in the assault units of the Russian army in Ukraine, and the entire event is aimed at warming their image. At the same time, this is a symbol of passing the baton between veterans of the war against Nazism and new generations of military men who, according to Russian propaganda, continue this fight.

TV Zvezda

The tvzvezda.ru portal belongs to the Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation. Therefore, it is obviously used to promote narratives justifying the invasion of Ukraine. This article about the celebration of Victory Day in Melitopol can be a perfect example here. The city was occupied in late February and early March 2022 by Russian forces and remains under their occupation to this day. The text from May 2022 discusses the march of the “Immortal Regiment” through the city. According to the author, the residents of Melitopol had allegedly not been able to celebrate Victory Day for many years, because it was prohibited by Ukrainian nationalists. The article suggests that they have finally been freed from “Nazism”, thanks to which they can finally enjoy happiness and freedom. As mentioned many times before, this text also promotes the narrative of the need to continue the fight against Nazism like previous generations.

Tsargrad

The Tsargrad portal, owned by the oligarch Konstantin Malofeev, also takes an active part in spreading the Kremlin’s historical policy. In the next example of a propaganda article, we are dealing with a seemingly innocent anecdote. A Russian soldier allegedly asked Ukrainian children about Stepan Bandera. They replied that he was “their father”. The military officer made the children aware that Bandera was in fact a murderer and a criminal. The text gives this as an example of indoctrination in Ukrainian schools, which are supposed to bring up children in the spirit of “Nazism and Russophobia”. At the end of the article, there is a mention that not only Nazis, but also satanic groups are active in Ukraine. All this is to create the impression in the reader that the Russian army brings enlightenment to Ukrainian lands and frees children from the influence of radical Ukrainian propaganda, which fools them.

News portals controlled by the services

A separate group of Russian Internet portals are those controlled by the services. They serve psychological and information warfare in Russia, Ukraine, and Western countries. Among the agencies that secretly run online media are: the Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU), the Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), and the Federal Security Service (FSB).

FONDSK

An example of a portal controlled by the SVR is Fondsk. The website, like other portals run by intelligence agencies, serves as a vector to amplify and disseminate the Russian propaganda message. One of the articles there discusses the liberation of Odessa from German occupation in 1944. It is entitled “Is the second liberation of Odessa coming?”. The author of the text claims that the inhabitants of this city are allegedly suffering under the Nazi “yoke” again. The city’s current Ukrainian affiliation is compared to the brutal Nazi occupation. He refers, among other things, to the destruction of Russian and Soviet monuments in the city as an act of barbarism. He also recalls the fire at the Trade Unions House in 2014, in which 42 people died. At the end of the article, he states that the Russian army will bring liberation to the city and punish the “Nazis” like the Red Army in 1944.

Antifashist

Antifashist is a portal with links to the FSB. Its aim is to strengthen Russian messages and undermine faith in state institutions in Ukraine. In one of its articles, we can find references to a situation in which the authorities in Kyiv would deprive World War II veterans of social assistance. This is not true, because in fact Ukraine withdrew from the agreement with Russia on this matter, and the participants of the war with Germany still enjoy the protection of the state. The text is part of a broader narrative according to which the alleged rulers of Ukraine hate the symbol of the Great Patriotic War, so they are doing everything to destroy it by demolishing monuments, banning ceremonies and persecuting veterans. This is supposed to be proof of links with Nazism and justification of Russia’s actions.

News Front

News Front is an international website that presents itself as an independent portal from the “People’s Republics” of Donbass. In fact, it is financed by the FSB. The article we will use as an example also fits into the narrative discussed above. It tells the story of how the Ukrainian representative to the UN allegedly insults the memory of Soviet soldiers fighting in World War II. This is to be another example of aversion to the heroes of the Great Patriotic War. An outrageous statement was to be, among other things, that the retreating Red Army in 1941 was responsible for the deaths of thousands of civilians. In fact, the statement is true. In 1941, on Stalin’s orders, Soviet soldiers in retreat blew up the Dnieper Hydroelectric Power Plant, killing up to 120,000 Ukrainian civilians. It is one of the bloodiest one-time man-made disasters in history. And this is just one example of the ruthlessness of the Red Army in Ukraine.

Media pretending to be Ukrainian portals

Some Russian media have been disguised in such a way as to create the impression of portals run by Ukrainians. There are many portals for Ukrainian readers, and some are intended to interest the Western audience. Some also present a view of Ukraine from the Russian side.

One of such portals is the Ukraina.ru website, which reinforces the Kremlin’s propaganda about Ukraine. One of many articles we can find on the website discusses the Lviv pogrom at the beginning of July 1941, when the Wehrmacht entered the city. It was carried out primarily by the Ukrainian population, and to a lesser extent by the Polish population inspired by German troops. The article directly states that the current government in Kyiv is a direct successor to those responsible for the murders.

ASD.news is another portal that amplifies the Kremlin’s propaganda messages and is aimed at, among others, Ukrainians. This pro-Russian article states that Ukrainians have been trying to destroy the memory of World War II since 2014. They are supposed to promote Nazi symbols and consider Russians as second-class citizens. Western countries helping Ukraine are compared to Hitler’s allies. It is also stated that Great Britain was responsible for the rise of National Socialism in Germany. At the same time, the article suggests that the actions of the West will lead to the outbreak of World War III, just as Western countries are to blame for World Wars I and II.

The Donbass Insider website is aimed mainly at Western audiences, pretending to be a Ukrainian media outlet from the “People’s Republics”. It is published primarily in French and English. The site was founded by a French communist, Christelle Néant, who left for Donbass. From the very beginning, it has been reinforcing the Kremlin’s propaganda message. One of the articles puts forward a thesis that the struggle for Donbas is a “war about memory”. According to the author of the article, Ukrainian troops have been deliberately destroying World War II memorials with their artillery since 2014 in that area. The aim of the “special military operation” is to prevent the destruction of culture and memory of the war against Nazism.

Portals in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe

In Eastern, Central and Southern Europe, numerous websites operate as amplifiers of the Kremlin’s message. They are designed to generate support for Russia’s actions and undermine the internal cohesion of states. There are many portals of this type in this region of Europe due to the fact that Moscow considers it to be its zone of influence.

One of them is the Polish Independent Political Daily, which took part, among others, in Russian influence operations. The portal has been active for many years and has been successful in spreading disinformation and pro-Kremlin narratives. The website published, among others, a text entitled: “Tolerance, gentlemen! Neo-Nazis are officially an integral part of our society.” It depicts Ukrainian refugees as neo-Nazis and Banderites, who historically hate Poles. According to the author, they are supposed to destroy Polish monuments by painting swastikas on them. On the other hand, the Polish state is presented as the one that tolerates the hatred of Ukrainians and the falsification of the history of World War II.

An interesting example of a portal that reproduces Russian propaganda is The Duran operating from Cyprus. It is linked with the Russian government medium RT. In March, an article was published there with the suggestive title: “The war on Donbass: why we must all stand against fascism”. The text points to Ukraine and the West as the culprits of the entire conflict, and presents Putin as a person who wanted to avoid war at all costs. According to the author, Russia had no choice but to launch the military operation in order to avoid such terrible consequences as World War II brought. It is repeatedly stated in the text that 27 million Russians had to die in order to defeat the Nazis. The experience of the inhabitants of Luhansk during World War II is also referenced, which could have been repeated if not for the intervention of Russia and the brave attitude of the city’s residents, who, against all odds, stood up militarily to the invaders from Ukraine.

Press directed to the West

Several large portals, financed directly by the Russian government, have built a fairly strong position among Western audiences over the years. These include portals such as Sputnik, RT, and TASS. They are effectively used by Russian propaganda centres, even if they have been blocked in the European Union or the U.S. They can still be accessed via VPN, and numerous portals in Europe copy their texts, spreading the narratives desired by the Kremlin further.

Sputnik

The Sputnik portal is particularly active in this matter, as it is published in dozens of languages, thanks to which it can reach millions of people around the world. The editors try to make the most of it and actively reproduce the Kremlin’s propaganda. This, of course, also applies to Russia’s historical policy towards World War II. For example, this article published in May 2022 reinforces the aforementioned narrative about the persecution of veterans of the Great Patriotic War and the destruction of memorial sites. The text suggests that “ordinary” Ukrainians want to celebrate the heroes of World War II, but aggressive nationalist militias and the Nazi policies of the government in Kyiv prohibit them from doing so. The article gives the reader the impression that the whole of Ukraine is being terrorised by radical groups that worship Adolf Hitler and want to destroy the memory of World War II.

The Ukrainian army compared to the Wehrmacht

Another example from the Sputnik website is a direct comparison of the Ukrainian army to the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS. The article compares the current situation in Ukraine with the one that took place in 1943 on this section of the front. At that time, German Marshal von Manstein had to use relatively small forces to manoeuvre defence and give up part of the territory in order to effectively fight the Red Army. According to the author, the Ukrainian army is trying to do the same, but it is too weak for it and not ready to give up territory. The summary states that just as the German troops were ultimately defeated by the Red Army, this time the Russian troops will also win. This is, of course, an attempt to build a connotation between the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the Wehrmacht.

Sputnik’s multipolar world

Sputnik is also eager to spread the Russian concept of a multipolar world on the basis of the Kremlin’s historical policy and references to the Great Patriotic War. These considerations appeared on the occasion of the celebrations of Victory Day in 2024. The article emphasises that the USSR fought not only against Nazi Germany, but also against its allies and the entire economic power of conquered Europe. This is to show that Russia will yet again be able to win against the West. As we have mentioned before, this is false thinking, and the economically conquered Europe was above all a burden for the Reich, making it difficult for German industry to concentrate its efforts against the USSR. The article points out that the West is distorting history, which will most probably repeat itself. Putin is supposed to want only peace and allegedly avoids the confrontation that Western countries are striving for. At the same time, Russia is ready to defend itself if its interests are violated.

TASS

Of course, the Kremlin’s propaganda is also dissipated by the main news agency of the Russian Federation — TASS. One of many examples of this is an article about Justin Trudeau supporting Nazism. As proof of this, his cry “Glory to Ukraine” during a conference in Switzerland is given. According to the author of the text, this is his way of expressing his support for Stepan Bandera and his criminal actions, and glorifying cooperation with Nazi Germany. It is supposed to be evidence that Western leaders are ready to support radical groups only to fight Russia.

This TASS article is our last example, but at the same time a perfect illustration of the promotion of “anti-Katyn” policy combined with justifying the invasion of Ukraine. It refers to the statements of Mikhail Miagkov, the scientific director of the Russian Military-Historical Society. Miagkov claims that the Katyn massacre was a German false flag operation, similar to the Ukrainian “provocation in Bucha”. He unequivocally shifts the responsibility for the Katyn massacre away from the USSR, pointing to the Germans as the culprits. At the same time, it repeats false claims about the Russian war crimes in Bucha. Linking these two events and blaming someone else for the Russian murders fits perfectly into the Russian policy of falsifying history.

Propaganda of the Great Patriotic War on social media

An important part of promoting Russian propaganda narratives is, of course, social media. The Kremlin’s apparatus of influence eagerly uses Russian bloggers, pro-Russian Western influencers, or anonymous accounts (both trolls and bots) for this purpose. Among the topics they touch, one can also find World War II and historical policy. The message is, of course, intertwined with Kremlin propaganda and fully consistent with the line of power in Moscow. Being active in social media allows to penetrate information bubbles and reach broader audiences, especially in the West, which are difficult to reach through official channels.

Pro-Russian influencers

An important group reinforcing the Kremlin’s propaganda message on social media are influencers from Western countries. They can reach their audiences more easily to effectively spread Russian propaganda. Below are selected examples of such people and their posts.

Scott Ritter

Ritter is an American writer and a former intelligence officer of the United States Marine Corps, who participated in the UN Special Commission on Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq. He is also a convicted felon for child sexual abuse. Since the beginning of the invasion of Ukraine, he has been actively supporting the Kremlin’s propaganda apparatus with his statements to the Russian media and social media posts. In the course of his activity, he did not omit the subject of World War II.

Among his posts on the X portal, one can find the one about the sacrifices that Americans suffered fighting Nazism. According to Ritter, the Ukrainians lost as many soldiers in the first year of the invasion as the U.S. did throughout World War II. His words mainly refer to the issue of helping Ukraine. According to him, Americans support the same criminal ideology they fought 80 years ago. This is an obvious reference to the Russian narrative about Ukrainian Nazis.

Another example is this post claiming that Russia remembers its experience from World War II, while Europe does not. Therefore, the latter is doomed to repeat history and risk a full-scale war. Exactly the same narratives were created by Vladimir Putin during his speeches, for example on Victory Day in 2023.

Jackson Hinkle

Hinkle is an American influencer known for his radical views and spreading disinformation. One of the elements of his activity in social media is supporting Russia and spreading the Kremlin’s propaganda. Of course, he also does not avoid the topic of the Great Patriotic War.

In one of his online statements, Hinkle claims that Putin, just like Stalin, is fighting against absolute evil. Therefore, the operation to “liberate” Ukraine cannot be compared to the American interventions in Iraq or Afghanistan, which were criminal. This is, of course, another example, this time presented by a Western influencer, of Russia’s messianic vision and its infallibility.

Putin was presented in a similar tone in Hinkle’s comment on the scandal in the Canadian parliament. During Volodymyr Zelenskyy’s visit to Canada, MPs applauded Yaroslav Hunka, a member of the Ukrainian Waffen-SS troops. This incident, despite apologies from the Canadians, was widely used by Russian propaganda. Hinkle also commented on it, presenting Vladimir Putin as a saviour from Nazism that everyone must support.

Alina Lipp

Lipp is a German influencer who moved to Russian-occupied Crimea, where she started working for Kremlin propaganda. Her social media channels are in German and Russian. On her Telegram, she presented, among other things, a fake message about Canadians of Ukrainian origin who were directed to carry out ethnic cleansing in western Ukraine. According to her, Canada gave shelter to Ukrainian Nazis after World War II and now uses them to commit crimes.

w zachodniej Ukrainie. Jak twierdzi, Kanada po II wojnie światowej dawała schronienie ukraińskim nazistom i teraz wykorzystuje ich do popełniania zbrodni. 

In another post, Lipp states that Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy bought a villa that once belonged to Joseph Goebbels, the German Reich’s Minister of Propaganda and Public Education. This is fake news, and its purpose is to reinforce the association between Nazism and the Ukrainian authorities. Both pieces of information provided by Alina Lipp are aimed at painting the image of Ukraine as a mainstay of Nazi ideology. It does not matter that they have nothing to do with the truth.

Bartlett, Lancaster, Medhurst

There are many pro-Russian influencers who direct their activities to the Western audience. One of them is Eva Bartlett from Canada, best known for spreading conspiracy theories about the war in Syria. In one of her posts, she tries to improve the image of Russian soldiers by comparing them to veterans of World War II.

Patric Lancaster is an American war correspondent who moved to Donbas. He is extremely active in recording materials from the front line, presenting an extreme point of view compliant with Russian propaganda. In one of his posts on Telegram, he recalls the history of the Great Patriotic War memorial. Despite the “fierce attack” of the Ukrainians on the Russian city of Shebekino, the monument has survived, and its eternal flame is still burning. Lancaster emphasises that it is a symbol of steadfastness of those who gave their lives for the fight against Nazism, which, according to Kremlin propaganda, is still ongoing.

The activity of Richard Medhurst, a British “independent journalist” of Syrian origin, is also in line with Russia’s historical policy. For instance, he expresses outrage at the banning of Russian flags at the celebrations of the end of World War II in Berlin. He creates a narrative that it is ingratitude for the sacrifices that the Soviet Union made in the fight against Nazism, and an element of Russophobia of the West. Medhurst’s post is a perfect example of how the propaganda is trying to create a vision of Russia as a country that, regardless of its current actions, deserves respect for historical achievements at all times.

Russian military bloggers

In Russian social media, there’s a whole separate group of bloggers who report on the war in Ukraine (the so-called Z-bloggers). They enjoy enormous reach and, although their activities are primarily aimed at domestic propaganda, they also have thousands of followers in the West. They also often use vulgar language and are eager to criticise, for instance, the Russian army for its incompetence, but at the same time remain fully loyal to Russian imperialism.

Aleksander Kots

Kots, a journalist for Komsomolskaya Pravda and a Russian propagandist, has been actively working for the Kremlin’s apparatus of influence since the beginning of the war in Donbas. After the capture of Avdiivka by Russian troops in February 2024, he praised the extraordinary ability of the Russians to rebuild. Almost completely destroyed by heavy fighting, the city was to be quickly restored to its glory, like thousands of Soviet towns after World War II. In addition to referring to the alleged historical ability of the Russians to quickly repair and constantly push forward despite adversity, Kots indirectly suggested that Avdiivka belongs to Russia. In reality, however, a few months after Kots’s statement, the city is still completely destroyed and struggling with a cholera epidemic.

Semyon Pegov

Pegov, better known as War Gonzo, is a Russian propagandist and war correspondent. He has repeatedly provided false information, for example, about the NATO biolaboratory in Mariupol. In his activity, he repeatedly referred to the myth of the Great Patriotic War. In May this year, he described a new exhibition in the museum devoted to World War II in Smolensk. It commemorated two Russian soldiers who died during the war in Ukraine. This is another element of the narrative that the Russian army continues its mission to fight Nazism just like its predecessors.

In another post, Pegov again paints the same picture. The blogger talks about how Russian soldiers fought near the Great Patriotic War monument in Zaporizhzhia. On 9 May, 2024, they celebrated Victory Day under it, holding portraits of their squad mates who died during the invasion of Ukraine. Pegov recalls that in the summer of 2023, Ukrainian offensive was halted near the monument, and an enemy tank that wanted to destroy the monument exploded on a mine. As the propagandist accentuates, the trenches of the Russian army run in the same place where the Red Army once fought against the Germans. By doing so, Pegov tries to build obvious symbolism and a parallel between history and the present.

Semenov, Yaremchuk, Naumova

Other propagandists, such as Alexander Semenyov, Alexander Yaremchuk and Maryana Naumov, also do not avoid the topic of the Great Patriotic War. Semenov tells a story of a group of Russian female pilots who organise the flight of seven planes for Victory Day every year. On the hulls of the machines there are images of the heroes of World War II. In the last year, however, they have also added photos of fallen Russian soldiers fighting in Ukraine, who are supposed to be as heroic as their grandfathers fighting against the Nazis.

On the other hand, Alexander Yaremchuk discussed on his Telegram how the Ukrainian authorities “worship” the Nazis. This is done, among other things, by allegedly allowing Waffen-SS veterans to participate in marches or parades. This is supposed to be proof that the government in Kyiv is in fact Nazi.

Maryana Naumova focuses on showing the suffering of the civilian population and false empathy for the inhabitants of eastern Ukraine. In her propaganda activities, she uses local residents to show “Ukrainian crimes”. For instance, one of Naumova’s posts talked about an elderly woman who experienced the German occupation at the age of seven. The video posted there was edited in such a way as to unambiguously create links between the war in Ukraine and World War II. The actions of the Ukrainian army are indirectly compared to the Nazi occupation in such a way that the viewer unequivocally connects both events.

Anonymous social media posts and memes

An underestimated source of creating anti-Ukrainian narratives and narratives related to the Great Patriotic War are social media posts and memes. In this section, we analyse selected contents of this kind. They have various goals — to discredit the Ukrainian and Western authorities, to support and warm the image of Russian soldiers, and to present aggression in a specific light.

Discrediting the Ukrainian and Western authorities

The first example is a meme that depicts Stalin smoking a pipe. This image has been circulating on the internet and social media since at least 2021. In this contemporary context, it reemerged on 9 May, 2024.

The caption, loosely translated, says that on 8 May, the losers mourn, and on 9 May, the winners celebrate. It is worth noting that the difference in the date of celebrating the end of World War II in Europe results from the fact that Berlin and Moscow are located in two different time zones. The capitulation of the Third Reich was signed on 8 May before midnight, when it was already past midnight in Moscow. However, the message is clear, presenting the Soviet Union as the sole victor of the war, and 9 May as the only day that should be celebrated. It is true that the act of surrender was signed on 8 May, but in this context the Western countries are also presented as losers.

Another example discrediting the West are the words attributed to Marshal Georgy Zhukov, who won the battle for Berlin. He was to say the following sentence: “We liberated Europe from fascism, but they will never forgive us.” This quote appears in posts on social media platforms. The purpose of this is to discredit the West, which — let us clearly reiterate this — also participated in defeating the Axis powers. In addition, it fits into the narrative of the ingratitude of the West, which is supposed to support allegedly Nazi Ukraine and be imbued with the ideas of National Socialism itself.

Alleged attempts to revise history

Another post on the X portal shows archival photos of the Red Army entering towns and villages. The photos show Soviet soldiers greeted by inhabitants.

The caption can be translated as follows:

With some uninformed people describing the Soviet liberators as occupiers, here is a thread about HOW the people of Europe really welcomed their heroes — the Red Army. Remember! You will never succeed in rewriting history and dishonouring the glorious memory of our ancestors!

The content can be associated with the process of decommunisation of Ukraine and all the laws related to it. It also refers to the perspective dominant in Poland and the Baltic states, which sees the Red Army as a new occupier.

Russian soldiers as continuators of the holy war against fascism

Soldiers are also often featured in the posts. They are presented as continuators of the fight against Nazism, and the war in which they take part is called “holy” or “sacred”. One example is a film in which soldiers taking part in the war remember their ancestors who took part in the Great Patriotic War. They claim that the fight for the memory of the achievements of their predecessors is still ongoing. In the subsequent scenes, the soldiers compare their actions to the heroic deeds of the Red Army soldiers from World War II. And so, the tanker says that his grandfather destroyed the Tigers as part of the crew of the T-34 tank, and today he will destroy Leopards while sitting in a Russian machine. The soldiers must complete the work of their “heroic” ancestors and destroy the new incarnation of Nazism, defeat their descendants.

In another post we see a photo of a well-equipped Russian soldier with the caption “holy war” underneath. The author also quoted the words of Patriarch Kirill:

From the spiritual and moral point of view, the special military operation is a holy war.

The image of a dangerous and well-equipped soldier is to present the power and modernity of the Russian army. The narrative itself refers to the Great Patriotic War, which was called “holy” in order to mobilise the society. Another “holy” war is taking place today, this time against the alleged descendants of the Nazis — Ukrainians and Europeans. At the same time, the post maintains the narrative about the theology of victory created by Patriarch Kirill.

Summary

The above report as a four-part whole shows that the Great Patriotic War is an extremely important element of the identity of the Russian people. From the moment of the German invasion of the USSR on 22 June, 1941, Soviet propaganda began to create a myth for decades to come. It was transformed during the reigns of Khrushchev or Brezhnev, and its role changed again to some extent after the collapse of the Soviet Union. After taking power, Vladimir Putin decided to use the legend of World War II to justify his superpower ambitions. It has become particularly important, or rather central to historical policy, since the beginning of the crisis in Ukraine. At that time, Russia needed to justify its actions in the face of criticism of the West.

However, it was the invasion of Ukraine that brought a flood of propaganda about the Great Patriotic War. The entire apparatus of influence of the Russian Federation was harnessed to spread contents in line with the Kremlin’s policy. Political decision-makers in the Kremlin, led by Vladimir Putin, act according to one vision of historical policy. State-owned media, controlled by oligarchs and secret services, as well as foreign portals linked to the Kremlin, are actively involved. Also in social media, the narrative about Russia’s historical mission in the form of the fight against Nazism is widely distributed with the help of influencers from Western countries, Russian bloggers or networks of trolls and bots.

The Great Patriotic War is treated almost as sacred, and its overtones are strongly messianic. Any criticism of Russia’s historical policy is met with fierce attacks from the Kremlin’s apparatus of influence. The sacralisation of World War II is an extremely important element of the identity of the Russians, and will continue to be used for propaganda purposes in the future, as it is an inseparable part of the DNA of the Russian nation.

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Photos

File:Vladimir Putin (2022-02-24).jpg by Kremlin.ru, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

File:2023 Moscow Victory Day Parade 18.jpg by Mil.ru, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

File:Interview with Vladimir Putin to Tucker Carlson (2024-02-06) 05.jpg by Kremlin.ru, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Zdjęcie Sergieja Ławrowa by Press Service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation

File:Vladimir Putin at award ceremonies (2022-12-20) 28.jpg by Kremlin.ru, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

File:Scott Ritter speaks at SUNY New Paltz.jpg by RadicalHarmony at English Wikipedia, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

File:Meeting with war correspondents (2023-06-13) 08.jpg by kremlin.ru, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons